all is about stone

Real Savings With Artificial Stone

2009-05-07T08:24:00.000+07:00

Real Savings With Artificial Stone
Home builders today are challenged as never before to deliver quality homes at affordable prices. The current economic climate -- reduced access to credit, lower prices, and nervous investors -- means builders must compete in a tough buyer's market. It's essential to reduce costs wherever possible.

Yet, home buyers still demand top quality and enduring beauty.

Increasingly, builders are solving this dilemma by taking advantage of modern materials like artificial stone veneer, sometimes referred to as a stone facing, manufactured stone, or faux stone. This remarkable material makes possible fresh and innovative designs, greater flexibility, and reduced costs, all adding up to the ever-important curb appeal that attracts qualified buyers.

Out With The Old

Traditional brick is a proven building material and has been used for centuries. But it is also expensive, both in its initial cost and in the added costs of shipping, masonry labor, and reinforced foundations required to support its extra weight.

To counter these drawbacks, builders have lately turned to vinyl siding, drawn by its cheaper cost, lighter weight, and easier installation. But these advantages are not enough to overcome a major drawback: the tendency to use the siding in unimaginative, even boring designs.

The popularity of brick and the convenience of vinyl siding has inhibited creativity and led to a rash of new subdivisions filled with repetitive designs that look as if they all came off the same assembly line. Limiting themselves to these conventional materials means many builders miss opportunities to attract new and design-conscious buyers.

In With The New

Countering this trend, savvy builders have discovered the range of possibilities provided by artificial stone veneer. Modeled after natural stone and virtually indistinguishable from the original, artificial stone veneer is manufactured from a formulation of Portland cement, natural aggregates, and carefully selected pigments. Durable, light weight, and easy to work with, the material can substitute for wall stone in both interior and exterior projects ranging from chimneys and fireplaces, to fences, pillars, stone walls, and stone facings.

There is also the option to add stone veneer to popular traditional materials like wood siding, stucco, and board-and-batten, giving your home a custom-built look at affordable prices. Now, in combination with stone veneer accents, these techniques make possible unique designs that are more attractive then vinyl siding and less expensive than traditional brick.

Solid Savings

Using artificial stone veneer instead of traditional brick leads to remarkable savings. Besides the lower cost of the product itself, artificial stone veneer's light weight means a substantial reduction in the cost of shipping, labor, and foundations and footings. For example, builders can easily achieve a savings of between $1,700 and $4,000 (Canadian) on an average-sized detached home.

When selecting a vendor for artificial stone veneer, it's important to look for a company with both a superior product and a solid reputation. For Canadian builders, Stone Selex satisfies both requirements.

In addition to its existing product line from Artistic Stone, Stone Selex is now an authorized distributor for Canyon Stone, giving customers -- builders and renovators alike -- even more options for creating stunning stone designs to attract buyers and increase the value of a home. For your security, they offer a 50-year warranty on every stone they sell, keeping you covered for generations to come.

Contact Stone Selex to find out more about how you can achieve real savings with artificial stone.

Jerry Lebiedzinski is the President of Stone Selex, a premier supplier of artificial stone wall and manufactured stone in Canada. Visit Stone Selex at http://www.stoneselex.com for the best options in manufactured stone veneer.

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Rosetta Stone

2009-05-05T07:29:00.001+07:00

Rosetta Stone
For other uses, see Rosetta Stone (disambiguation).

The Rosetta Stone is a multilingual stele that allowed linguists to begin the process of hieroglyph decipherment.

Illustration of the Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the French in 1799 at Rosetta and contributed greatly to the deciphering of the principles of hieroglyph writing in 1822 by the British scientist Thomas Young and the French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Comparative translation of the stone assisted in understanding many previously undecipherable examples of hieroglyphic writing. The text on the stone is a decree from Ptolemy V, describing the repealing of various taxes and instructions to erect statues in temples.

The stone is 1,144 millimetres (45.0 in) high at its highest point, 723 millimetres (28.5 in) wide, and 279 millimetres (11.0 in) thick. It is unfinished on its sides and reverse. Weighing approximately 760 kilograms (1,700 lb), it was originally thought to be granite or basalt but is currently described as granodiorite of a dark pinkish-gray color. The stone has been on public display at The British Museum since 1802.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Modern-era discovery
1.2 Translation
1.3 Recent history
2 Abbreviated-synopsis in English (eighth of text)
3 Idiomatic use
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links

History

Modern-era discovery

The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum
In preparation for Napoleon's 1798 campaign in Egypt, the French founded the Institut de l'Égypte in Cairo which brought 167 scientists and archaeologists to the region. French Army engineer Captain Pierre-François Bouchard discovered the stone sometime - the sources are not specific - in mid-July 1799 , while guiding construction work at Fort Julien near the Egyptian port city of Rashid (Rosetta). The Napoleonic army was so awestruck by this unheralded spectacle that, according to a witness, "It halted of itself and, by one spontaneous impulse, grounded its arms." (As quoted by Robert Claiborne, The Birth of Writing [1974], p. 24.) After Napoleon returned in 1799, 167 scholars remained behind with French troops which held off British and Ottoman attacks. In March 1801, the British landed on Aboukir Bay and scholars carried the Stone from Cairo to Alexandria alongside the troops of Jacques-Francois Menou. French troops in Cairo capitulated on June 22, and in Alexandria on August 30.

After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt. De Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the Institute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore, refused to relieve the city until de Menou gave in. Newly arrived scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton agreed to check the collections in Alexandria and found many artifacts that the French had not revealed.

When Hutchinson claimed all materials as a property of the British Crown, a French scholar, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries — referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria — than turn them over. Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as biology specimens would be the scholars' private property. De Menou regarded the stone as his private property and hid it.

How exactly the Stone came to British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had personally seized it from de Menou and carried it away on a gun carriage. Clarke stated in his memoirs that a French scholar and an officer had quietly given up the stone to him and his companions in a Cairo back street. French scholars departed later with only imprints and plaster casts of the stone.

Experts inspecting the Rosetta Stone during the International Congress of Orientalists of 1874
Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard the captured French frigate L'Egyptienne in February 1802. On March 11, it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day. Inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state "Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801" on the left side and "Presented by King George III" on the right.

Translation
In 1814, the Briton Thomas Young finished translating the enchorial (demotic) text, and began work on the hieroglyphic script. From 1822 to 1824 the French scholar, philologist, and orientalist Jean-François Champollion greatly expanded on this work and is credited as the principal translator of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion could read both Greek and Coptic, and figured out what the seven Demotic signs in Coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in Coptic, he worked out what they meant. Then he traced the Demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he transliterated the text from the Demotic (or older Coptic) and Greek to the hieroglyphs by first translating Greek names which were originally in Greek, then working towards ancient names that had never been written in any other language. Champollion then created an alphabet to decipher the remaining text.

In 1858, the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania published the first complete English translation of the Rosetta Stone as accomplished by three of its undergraduate members: Charles R Hale, S Huntington Jones, and Henry Morton. The translation quickly sold out two editions and was internationally hailed as a monumental work of scholarship. In 1988, the British Museum bestowed the honor of including the Philomathean Rosetta Stone Report in its select bibliography of the most important works ever published on the Rosetta Stone. The Philomathean Society maintains a full-scale mold of the stone in its meeting room at the University of Pennsylvania.

Recent history
The Rosetta Stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since 1802. Toward the end of World War I, in 1917, the Museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London and moved the Rosetta Stone to safety along with other portable objects of value. The Stone spent the next two years in a station on the Postal Tube Railway 50 feet below the ground at Holborn.

The Stone left the British Museum again in October 1972 to be exhibited for one month at the Louvre Museum on the 150th anniversary of the decipherment of hieroglyphic writings with the famous Lettre a M Dacier of Jean-François Champollion.

In July 2003, Egypt demanded the return of the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, told the press: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity." In 2005, Hawass was negotiating for a three-month loan, with the eventual goal of a permanent return. In November 2005, the British Museum sent him a replica of the stone.

Abbreviated-synopsis in English (eighth of text)
In the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, and also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;

In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.

THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared: Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osirus, who came to the help of his Father Osirus; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.

The complete Greek text, in English, is about 1600–1700 words in length, and is about 20 paragraphs long (average 80 words per paragraph). In essence, the Rosetta Stone is a tax amnesty given to the temple priests of the day, restoring the tax privileges they had traditionally enjoyed from more ancient times. Some scholars speculate that several copies of the Rosetta Stone must exist, as yet undiscovered, since this proclamation must have been made at many temples.

Idiomatic use
The term Rosetta Stone has become idiomatic as something that is a critical key to a process of decryption or translation of a difficult problem:

"The Rosetta Stone of immunology" and "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of flowering time (fossils)". An algorithm for predicting protein structure from sequence is named Rosetta@home. In molecular biology, a series of "Rosetta" bacterial cell lines have been developed that contain a number of tRNA genes that are rare in E. coli but common in other organisms, enabling the efficient translation of DNA from those organisms in E. coli.

"Rosetta" is the name of a "lightweight dynamic translator" distributed for Mac OS X by Apple. Rosetta enables applications compiled for a RISC processor (PowerPC) to run on Apple systems using a CISC (x86) processor.

Rosetta Stone is the brand of a language learning software limited corporation headquartered in Arlington, VA, USA.

The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD. Its goal is a meaningful survey and near permanent archive of 1,500 languages.

In Cheech and Chong's Sister Mary Elephant skit, the teacher who Sister Mary is substituting for is named Sister Rosetta Stone.

See also
Rosetta (disambiguation)
Behistun Inscription
Theodore Geisel also used "Rosetta Stone" as a pen name while writing the Dr. Seuss children books.

Notes
Allen, Don Cameron. "The Predecessors of Champollion", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 5. (1960), pp. 527–547
Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy. The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins, 2000 ISBN 0060194391
Budge, E. A. Wallis (1989). The Rosetta Stone. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261638. http://books.google.com/books?id=RO_m47hLsbAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rosetta+stone&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1_VaJ_NxkLmbZuYyDLji99DXwY6w.
Downs, Jonathan. Discovery at Rosetta. Skyhorse Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-1-60239-271-7
Downs, Jonathan. "Romancing the Stone", History Today, Vol. 56, Issue 5. (May, 2006), pp. 48–54.
Parkinson, Richard. Cracking Codes: the Rosetta Stone, and Decipherment. University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0520223063
Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. Objects in Focus; British Museum Press 2005 ISBN 9780714150215
Ray, John. The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2007 ISBN 9780674024939
Reviewed by Jonathon Keats in the Washington Post, July 22, 2007.
Solé, Robert; Valbelle, Dominique. The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics. Basic Books, 2002 ISBN 1568582269

References
^ "The Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/t/the_rosetta_stone.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
^ "History uncovered in conserving the Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/h/history_uncovered_in_conservin.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-11-11.
^ Retrieved on 2008-25-6
^ Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (2003-07-20). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2003%2F07%2F20%2Fnroset20.xml. Retrieved on 2006-10-05.
^ Henry Huttinger (2005-07-28). "Stolen Treasures: Zahi Hawass wants the Rosetta Stone back—among other things". Cairo Magazine. http://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=html. Retrieved on 2006-10-06.
^ "The rose of the Nile". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2005-11-30. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/770/he1.htm. Retrieved on 2006-10-06.
^ "Text of the Rosetta Stone". http://pw1.netcom.com/~qkstart/rosetta.html. Retrieved on 2006-11-26.
^ "Translation of the Greek section of the Rosetta Stone". Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/rosettastone.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-22.
^ The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2000-09-06). "International Team Accelerates Investigation of Immune-Related Genes". http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htm. Retrieved on 2006-11-23.
^ Gordon G. Simpson, Caroline Dean (2002-04-12). "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of Flowering Time?". http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5566/285?ijkey=zlwRiv/qSEivQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci. Retrieved on 2006-11-23.
^ http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/theampersand/archive/2009/03/02/five-things-you-didn-t-know-about-dr-seuss.aspx

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Text on the Rosetta Stone in English
Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Greek Text from the Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone in The British Museum
The translated text in English
The Finding of the Rosetta Stone
The 1998 conservation and restoration of The Rosetta Stone at The British Museum
Champollion's alphabet
How the Rosetta Stone works - Howstuffworks.com

Natural Stone Flooring

2009-05-04T08:22:00.000+07:00

Natural Stone Flooring
Five Handy Flooring Design Tips

Here are a few handy flooring tips to really beautify a room:

Tip #1: If you're laying tile flooring and want to make the room look bigger, use larger sized tiles (18 x 18 or larger) and lay them on a 45 degree angle (diamond pattern). What this does is draw your eye to the two widest points of each tile, giving your flooring the illusion of a larger space. And the larger sized tiles have less grout lines to look at so your flooring doesn't look as 'busy' across your a larger area as say a 12 x 12 would.

Just keep in mind installing tile on a 45 uses more tile because there are more cuts to be made.

Tip #2: If you want a clean, contemporary look, ask your installer to use the narrowest grout lines possible, either a 1/8 or 3/16 and for natural stone 1/16. Larger grout lines give a more rustic, earthy look. And higher gloss (polished) tiles are contemporary whereas heavily grooved and rough give an aged, worn look.

Tip #3: To give your flooring another illusionary trick, lighter colors give the room a more spacious feel while darker colors give it a cozier, smaller feel.

Tip #4: There are many flooring patterns available so don't hesitate to use them! Too many shoppers I met would obsess over what flooring everyone else is doing. This is your home, not anyone else's and you should get the floor that makes you happy. Don't be afraid of not looking like everyone else. That's the whole point! if you want to differentiate a room, then lay different flooring.

Tip #5: I'm a big fan of using matching or contrasting inserts to transform the flooring into a masterpiece. But not many really can create a room. You know, these deco pieces, listellos and natural stone inserts may cost you a couple hundred dollars all up but they give your room an unsurpassed look. Now I strongly recommend when doing these special flooring designs to only hire a certified flooring installer.

DON'T TRY and do them yourself unless you really know what you're doing. I've seen it too many times.

For example, for every insert, you need to make 4 cuts, one for each connecting tile. These cuts need to be pretty much right on, otherwise any unevenness will flash at you right away once its installed. And if you insist on doing it yourself, just remember two very important words: wet saw and diamond blade!

For more tips, please see Flooring Decorating & Shopping Tips

Should I Fit a Stone Floor in My Home?

2009-04-30T13:37:00.000+07:00

Should I Fit a Stone Floor in My Home?
In recent years the popularity of marble tiles has exploded, the value that it adds to the building often more than justifies it's original cost. The style, cost and finish can vary greatly though and so careful consideration should be taken before making any purchase.

Marble is a rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone, composed mostly of calcite and is mainly used for sculpture and as a building material. The patterns within the stone can be described as "swirly" or "blotchy".

When planning your home or kitchen for example, make sure that you understand the differences between the different marble finishes and choose worktops and floor tiles that will compliment. Buying the material at the same time and from the same source will ultimately give a much better overall finish.

Polished granite is darker than marble and the tone varies from a light grey to almost black in some cases. Knowing that you can match the floor tiles to any worktop is an important consideration.

Granite tiles are generally more expensive than Marble floor tiles as it is harder to polish and cut to the desired finish. The black color in Granite tiles comes from iron. The darker the granite, the more iron it contains and consequently the more it costs.

Another alternative to marble would be Limestone. The advantages of Limestone are that it's cheaper to manufacture and comes in white and cream colors that may suit your purpose. Limestone is a much softer stone and can be easily cut and polished. The patterns and colors are limited somewhat though.

Marble is quarried all over the world and each region can produce differing patterns and swirls within the stone that give the marble it's famous finish. There can be many different patterns available at your supplier all sourced from different parts of the world and they should be able to tell you where each piece came from. Be sure to choose your material from the same batch if you are looking for a uniform appearance across the home improvement project.

All stone floors have to be laid on at least a two inch bed of cement and will you have to think about the structure of your building to support this. If you were to lay a stone floor on an upstairs room you would need to make sure that the floor is supported properly with joists and sheeting where appropriate.

The weight of the floor can be reduced by using Perlite in place of normal gravel, but would still require the underpinning to install this type of floor in an upstairs room. Ground level floors just require the two inch bed of cement for laying the stone onto.

There is no substitute though for a bathroom or kitchen floor that is finished in stone and it should offer a good return on your investment. There are many books on the subject that can help you to achieve results yourself or you could hire a professional company to do it for you.

Chris Tyrrell writes for Floors of Stone, specialists in marble floor tiles and other stone floor coverings. Visit the website for more details.

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The Commercial Use of Natural Stone Makes Perfect Sense

2009-04-29T08:51:00.000+07:00

The Commercial Use of Natural Stone Makes Perfect Sense
There are many types of natural stone that have a commercial use. The more popular ones include granite, limestone, sandstone and marble, but other types can certainly be used as well. Natural stone is stone quarried from its natural location in the earth's outer crust. The commercial use of this kind of stone exploits its naturally appealing characteristics while also maintaining its natural state.

One common commercial use of natural stone is seen in the popularity of granite countertops in kitchens. Granite is a hard wearing volcanic stone that doesn't react with acidic foods and liquids; wine or orange juice won't leave stains that can't be removed. Granite is also resistant to bacteria, which is why it is so often used in kitchens.

Granite is not sensitive to heat. Hot pans can be placed on a granite countertop without any problems arising. Some synthetic stone materials can actually melt under the heat of cooking utensils and are not really suitable for kitchen use. Granite on the other hand is extremely durable and very difficult to scratch or chip.

Marble is a more aesthetically pleasing stone, especially when highly polished. However, it is a softer stone than granite and the commercial use of natural stone marble is therefore more often decorative rather than purely practical. Marble will scratch if treated roughly. It can also burn and will react with acidic foods.

Natural stone is also used for patios in tile form. It can be used to surround swimming pools and for the paving of paths. Perhaps the most obvious commercial use of natural stone is its use as a primary material in building large structures such as houses.

Houses are often built from concrete blocks or bricks these days, but they can still be built from stone. This, unfortunately, is a more expensive way to build a house, but the end result is stronger and more pleasing to the eye than concrete blocks or even bricks can ever be.

Buildings made from quarried stone usually last a long time. In the case of the Ancient Egyptians, their pyramids still stand as testimony to a remarkable building period back on the edge of history. Nearer to our own age, the majestic towering cathedrals of medieval Europe that blossomed from around the 11th century with their impossible arches that span and support great stone roofs are perhaps the finest example of the commercial use of natural stone.

Fireplaces are obvious locations to show off the beauty of stone. The solidity and natural strength of the right type of stone can secure and show off a fireplace at its best. The parts furthest from the fire's heat can be softer stone with more decorative qualities, such as marble. A well-planned stone fireplace can be a thing of great beauty and a natural focal point for any room.

Mankind has produced a multitude of different synthetic materials, often combining natural materials that we use every day. However, natural stone is so versatile and appropriate for an extremely wide range of uses that it is a wonder why we ever starting using synthetic materials. In fact, its practical and aesthetic uses are almost unlimited.

David A Robinson
Help and information about using natural stone for commercial buildings.

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http://EzineArticles.com/?The-Commercial-Use-of-Natural-Stone-Makes-Perfect-Sense&id=2090821

What Happens During A Hot Stone Massage

2009-04-28T07:12:00.000+07:00

What Happens During A Hot Stone Massage
Theres no better way to spend your free time than to indulge in a session of hot stone therapy to take all the stress away from your mind and body and to leave you renewed and refreshed than ever.

If you have never tried this relaxing and soothing experience, not only are you missing a lot of things but you may also be wondering what these stones have got to do with the massage.

If you want to know what exactly happens in a session of this kind of therapy, go and read on:

Hot stone therapy is a variation of the classic massage that incorporates heated stones to release muscular tension and stress. Basalt stones which are rich in iron are usually utilized because they are efficient in retaining heat.

In preparation for a hot stone therapy, the therapist sanitizes the stones of different sizes and shapes, and then heats them by immersing in 120 and 150 degree water.

Once the client arrives, the therapist gives him or her time to undress, lie on the massage table face down and relax for a few minutes before the session starts.

The therapist begins by applying massage oil on the clients body to allow for the stones to easily glide over the muscles. Stones will then be placed in key points of the body that are known to be energy centers such as on the back, in the palms of the hands and in between toes.

Traditional Swedish massage strokes are incorporated during the therapy while the stones are placed on the body. There are times when the therapist will also use the stones in applying pressure on the muscles.

The therapist always touches the stones first to make sure its not too hot to scald the clients body. If theres anything that the client is uncomfortable with, he or she can speak up because the therapist welcomes any concerns and makes the necessary arrangements to ease the clients apprehension.

After the entire process of placing stones and massage the back part of the body, the client is asked to turn over and the sequence will be repeated.

During the therapy, the heat of the stones regulates the circulation of energy as well as work wonders in relaxing the muscles. This also promote deep muscle and tissue relaxation.

Aside from that, this therapy is also known to be an effective way to release toxins that are clogged in the body. This is why a client is advised to drink plenty of water after a session to flush out these toxins.

Furthermore there are certain health conditions that are known to be improved by this therapy. These include muscular aches and pains, Arthritis, Fibromylagia, circulatory problems, Insomnia, and depression.

A typical session usually takes about 60 to 90 minutes long and costs about $50 to $190.

Having read this article may make you feel that you already know all about hot stone therapy. Thats where youre wrong. You will never truly know what the pleasure feels and experience its positive effects until you try it for yourself.

Stone Age

2009-04-27T08:46:00.001+07:00

Stone Age

This box: view • talk • edit
↑ before Homo (Pliocene)

Paleolithic

Lower Paleolithic
Homo
control of fire, stone tools
Middle Paleolithic
Homo neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens
out of Africa
Upper Paleolithic, Late Stone Age
behavioral modernity, atlatl, dog
Mesolithic

microliths, bow, canoe
Neolithic

Pre-Pottery Neolithic
farming, animal husbandry, polished stone tools
Pottery Neolithic
pottery
Chalcolithic
metallurgy, horse, wheel
↓ Bronze Age

The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which humans widely used stone for toolmaking.

Stone tools were made from a variety of different kinds of stone. For example, flint and chert were shaped (or chipped) for use as cutting tools and weapons, while basalt and sandstone were used for ground stone tools, such as quern-stones. Wood, bone, shell, antler(deer) and other materials were widely used, as well. During the most recent part of the period, sediments (like clay) were used to make pottery. A series of metal technology innovations characterize the later Chalcolithic (Copper Age), Bronze Age and Iron Age.

Obsidian projectile point
The period encompasses the first widespread use of technology in human evolution and the spread of humanity from East Africa to the rest of the world. It ends with the development of agriculture, the domestication of certain animals, and the smelting of copper ore to produce metal. It is termed prehistoric since humanity had not yet started writing—the traditional start of history (i.e., recorded history).

The term "Stone Age" was used by archaeologists to designate this vast pre-metallurgic period whose stone tools survived far more widely than tools made from other (softer) materials. It is the first age in the three-age system. A division of the Stone Age into an older and younger part was first proposed by Jens Jacob Worsaae in 1859 through his work with Danish kitchen middens that began in 1851. The subdivision into the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods that still is in use today, was made by John Lubbock in his now classic 1865 book Pre-historic Times. These three periods are further subdivided. In reality, the succession of phases differs enormously from one region (and culture) to another, indeed, humanity continued to expand into new areas even during the metal ages. Therefore, it is better to speak of a Stone Age, instead of the Stone Age. As a description of people living today, the term stone age is controversial. The Association of Social Anthropologists discourages this use.

Contents
1 The Stone Age in archaeology
1.1 Modern use of the term
2 Chronology
2.1 Paleolithic
2.1.1 Lower Palaeolithic
2.1.2 Middle Palaeolithic
2.1.3 Upper Palaeolithic
2.2 Epipalaeolithic/Mesolithic
2.3 Neolithic
3 Material culture
3.1 Food and drink
3.2 Shelter and habitat
3.3 Art
3.3.1 Petroglyphs
3.3.2 Rock paintings
3.4 Stone Age rituals and beliefs
4 Popular culture
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links

The Stone Age in archaeology
The date range of this period is ambiguous, disputed, and variable according to the region in question. While it is possible to speak of a general 'stone age' period for the whole of humanity, some groups never developed metal-smelting technology, so remained in a 'stone age' until they encountered technologically developed cultures. However, it is believed that this period began somewhere around 2.5 million years ago with the first hominid tool makers in Africa, most likely Australopithecus garhi.

Due to the prevalence of stone artifacts, which are frequently the only remains which still exist, lithic analysis is a major, and specialised, form of archaeological investigation for the period. This involves the measurement of the stone tools to determine their typology, function and the technology involved. This frequently involves an analysis of the lithic reduction of the raw materials, examining how the artefacts were actually made. This can also be examined through experimental archaeology, by attempting to create replica tools. This is done by flintknappers who reduce flintstone to a flint tool.

Modern use of the term

A variety of stone tools
One problem with the term is that it implies that human advancement and time periods in prehistory are only measured by the type of tool material most widely used, rather than, for example, type of social organization, food sources exploited, or adaption to harsh climates. This is a product of the level of knowledge of the distant past during the nineteenth century when the three age system was developed, a time when finds of artifacts were the main goal of an archaeological excavation. Modern archaeological techniques stress a wider collection of information that has expanded our knowledge of prehistory and rendered neat divisions such as the term Stone Age increasingly obsolete. We now know that the changes in past societies over the millennia were complex and involved multiple factors such as the adoption of agriculture, settlement or religion and that tool use is just one unrepresentative indicator of a society's practices and beliefs.

Another problem connected with the term Stone Age is that it was created to describe the archaeological cultures of Europe, and that it is inconvenient to use it in relation to regions such as some parts of the Americas and Oceania, where farmers or hunter-gatherers used stone for tools until European colonisation began. Metal-working was a much less important part of people's lives there and it is more useful to use other terms when dividing prehistory in those areas. The same incongruence applies to the Iron Age worldwide, because in the Americas iron (but not copper, silver or gold) was unknown until 1492, in Oceania until the 17th century or the 18th century.

A Stone Age was usually followed by a Bronze Age, during which metalworking technology allowed bronze (copper and tin or other metals) tools to become more common. The transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BC and 2500 BC for much of humanity living in North Africa, Asia and Europe. In some regions, such as Subsaharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by an Iron Age. It is generally believed that the Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BC. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BC. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BC, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance, the rest following later. Australia remained in a Stone Age until the 17th century.

We also now know that the transition from a Stone Age to a Bronze Age was not a neat switch but a long, gradual process involving the working of gold and copper at what are technically Neolithic sites. This "transition" period is known as the Copper age or Chalcolithic. It was a short and more a regional development, because alloying tin with copper began quite soon, except in regions lacking tin. Ötzi the Iceman for instance, a mummy from about 3300 BC carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. Stone tool manufacture also continued long into the succeeding metal-using ages, possibly even until the Early Middle Ages. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until deep into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.

Chronology
The three-age system divides human technological prehistory into three periods:

The Stone Age
The Bronze Age
The Iron Age
New ages and subages were added as new archaeological discoveries were made, and different schemes were developed to describe conditions in different places. A more modern periodization of the Stone Age stretches from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic in the following scheme (crossing an epoch boundary on the geologic time scale):

Pleistocene epoch (highly glaciated climate)
Paleolithic age
Holocene epoch (modern climate)
Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic age
Neolithic age
Copper Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
Historical period (written record begins)

Paleolithic
Main article: Paleolithic
The Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "old"; and λίθος, lithos, "stone" lit. "old age of the stone"; was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.) is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. It covers the greatest portion of humanity's time (roughly 99% of human history) on Earth, extending from 2.5 or 2.6 million years ago, with the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis, to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BC. The Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic, or in areas with an early neolithisation, the Epipaleolithic.

During the Paleolithic humans were grouped together in small scale societies such as bands and gained their subsistence from gathering plants and hunting wild animals. The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time, humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers; however, given their nature, these have not been preserved to any great degree. Humankind gradually evolved from early members of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis, who used simple stone tools into fully behaviorally and anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) during the Paleolithic era. During the end of the Paleolithic specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures.

See also: Human evolution

Lower Palaeolithic
Main article: Lower Palaeolithic
Near the end of the Pliocene epoch in Africa, an early ancestor of modern humans, called Homo habilis, developed the earliest stone tools. These were relatively simple tools known as choppers. Homo habilis is presumed to have mastered the Oldowan era tool case which utilized stone flakes and cores. This industry of stone tools is named after the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. These humans likely subsisted on scavenged meat and wild plants, rather than hunted prey. Around 1.5 million years ago, a more evolved human species, Homo erectus, appeared. H. erectus learned to control fire and created more complex chopper tools, as well as expanding out of Africa to reach Asia, as shown by sites such as Zhoukoudian in China. By 1 million years ago, the earliest evidence of humans in Europe is known, as well use of the more advanced handaxe tool.

Middle Palaeolithic
Main article: Middle Palaeolithic
This period is most well-known as being the era during which the Neanderthals lived (c. 120,000–24,000 years ago). The stone artefact technology of the Neanderthals is generally known as the Mousterian or more precisely Neandertal traits was found also in younger Châtelperronian, Aurignacian and Gravettian archeological cultures. The Neanderthals traits eventually disappeared from the archaeological record, replaced by modern humans traits which first appeared in Ethiopia around 120,000 years ago although often identified as Archaic Homo sapiens. Neanderthals nursed their elderly and practised ritual burial indicating an organised society. The earliest evidence (Mungo Man) of settlement in Australia dates to around 40,000 years ago when modern humans likely crossed from Asia by hopping from island to island. Middle Palaeolithic peoples demonstrate the earliest undisputed evidence for art and other expressions of abstract thought such as intentional burial of the dead.

Upper Palaeolithic

The cave art of Lascaux is an example of Upper Palaeolithic culture
Main article: Upper Palaeolithic
From 35,000 to 10,000 years ago (the end of the last ice age) modern humans spread out further across the Earth during the period known as the Upper Palaeolithic. In the time when Cro-Magnons and Neanderthal traits mixed in Europe (35-24.5 ky) a relatively rapid succession of often complex stone artefact technologies took place. During period between 35 and 10 kya evolved: from 35 to 29 kya Châtelperronian, 32-26 Aurignacian, 28-22 Gravettian, 22-17 Solutrean, and 18-10 Magdalenian. The last two occurred after the disappearance of neanderthal traits from paleoantropological specimens.

The Americas were colonised via the Bering land bridge which was exposed during this period by lower sea levels. These people are called the Paleo Indians, and the earliest accepted dates are those of the Clovis culture sites, some 13,500 years ago. Globally, societies were hunter-gatherers but evidence of regional identities begins to appear in the wide variety of stone tool types being developed to suit different environments.

Epipalaeolithic/Mesolithic
Main articles: Epipalaeolithic, Mesolithic
The period between the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago to around 6,000 years ago, was characterised by rising sea levels and a need to adapt to a changing environment and find new food sources. The development of microlith tools began in response to these changes. They were derived from the previous Palaeolithic tools, hence the term Epipalaeolithic. However, in Europe the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) is used, as the tools (and way of life) were imported from the Near East. There, microlith tools permitted more efficient hunting, while more complex settlements, such as Lepenski Vir developed based around fishing. Domestication of the dog as a hunting companion probably dates to this period.

The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Egypt known as Cemetery 117.

Neolithic
Main article: Neolithic

Ġgantija temples, Gozo. World's oldest free-standing structures

Skara Brae, Scotland. Europe's most complete Neolithic village
The Neolithic, New Stone Age, was characterized by the adoption of agriculture, the so-called Neolithic Revolution, the development of pottery and more complex, larger settlements such as Çatal Hüyük and Jericho. The first Neolithic cultures started around 7000 BC in the fertile crescent. Agriculture and the culture it led to spread to the Mediterranean, the Indus valley, China and Southeast Asia.

Due to the increased need to harvest and process plants, ground stone and polished stone artifacts became much more widespread, including tools for grinding, cutting, and chopping. The first large-scale constructions were built, including settlement towers and walls, e.g., Jericho and ceremonial sites, eg: Stonehenge. These show that there was sufficient resources and co-operation to enable large groups to work on these projects. To what extent this was a basis for the development of elites and social hierarchies is a matter of on-going debate. Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian though Neolithic cultures were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in general. The earliest evidence for established trade exists in the Neolithic with newly settled people importing exotic goods over distances of many hundreds of miles. The Ġgantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest surviving free standing structures in the world, erected c. 3600-2500 BC. Skara Brae located on Orkney island off Scotland is one of Europe's best examples of a Neolithic village. The community contains stone beds, shelves and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream.

Material culture

Food and drink
Food sources of the hunter-gatherer humans of the Stone Age included both animals and plants that were part of the environment in which these humans lived. These humans liked animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and brains. They consumed little dairy product or carbohydrate-rich plant foods like legumes or cereal grains. They also ate leaves and roots. They hunted animals. Large seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the neolithic agricultural revolution as evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of Kebara Cave, in Israel. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic.

Near the end of the Wisconsin glaciation, 15,000 to 9,000 years ago, the Megafauna occurred in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. This was the first Holocene extinction event. This event possibly forced modification in the dietary habits of the humans of that age and with the emergence of agricultural practices, plant-based foods also became a regular part of the diet. This extinction may have been caused by humans over hunting wild game animals such as the Wooly mammoth although other scientists believe that the megafauna extinction was instead caused by climate change.

“ The first wine-tasting may have occurred when Paleolithic humans slurped the juice of naturally fermented wild grapes from animal-skin pouches or crude wooden bowls. ”
—William Cocke, National Geographic News

Shelter and habitat

Poulnabrone dolmen in County Clare, Ireland
Around 2 million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed the first man-made structure in East Africa, consisting of simple arrangements of stones to hold branches of trees in position. A similar stone circular arrangement believed to be around 500 thousand years old was discovered at Terra Amata, near Nice, France. Several human habitats dating back to the Stone Age have been discovered around the globe, including:

A tent-like structure inside a cave near the Grotte du Lazaret, Nice, France.
A structure with a roof supported with timber, discovered in Dolni Vestonice, Czechoslovakia, dates to around 23,000 BC. The walls were made of packed clay blocks and stones.
Many huts made of mammoth bones were found in Eastern Europe and Siberia. The people who made these huts were expert mammoth hunters. Examples have been found along the Dniepr river valley of Ukraine, including near Chernihiv, in Moravia, Czech Republic and in southern Poland.
An animal hide tent dated to around 15000 to 10000 BC, in the Magdalenian, was discovered at Plateau Parain, France.
Megalithic tombs, multichambered, and dolmens, single-chambered, were graves with a huge stone slab stacked over other similarly large stone slabs; they have been discovered all across Europe and Asia and were built in the Neolithic. Several tombs with copper and bronze tools have also been discovered, illustrating the problems of attempting to define periods based on technology.

Art
Pre-historic art can only be traced from surviving artifacts. Prehistoric music is inferred from found instruments, while parietal art can be found on rocks of any kind. The latter are petroglyphs and rock paintings. The art may or may not have had a religious function.

Petroglyphs
Main article: Petroglyph
Petroglyphs appeared in the New Stone Age, commonly known as Neolithic period. A Petroglyph is an abstract or symbolic image recorded on stone, usually by prehistoric peoples, by means of carving, pecking or otherwise incised on natural rock surfaces. They were a dominant form or pre-writing symbols used in communication. Petroglyphs have been discovered in different parts of the world, including Asia (Bhimbetka, India), North America (Death Valley National Park), South America (Cumbe Mayo, Peru), and Europe (Finnmark, Norway).

Rock paintings

A rock painting at Bhimbetka, India, a World heritage site
Main article: Cave painting
Rock paintings were painted on rock and were more naturalistic depictions than petroglyphs. In paleolithic times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare. Mostly, animals were painted: not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the rhinoceros or large cats (as in the Chauvet Cave). Signs like dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include handprints and half-human/half-animal figures. The Cave of Chauvet in the Ardèche département, France, contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the paleolithic era, painted around 31,000 BC. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BC and show, among others, bisons. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, is one of the best known cave paintings from about 15,000 to 10,000 BC.

The meaning of the paintings remains unknown. The caves were not in an inhabited area, so they may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs which suggest a possible magic use. Arrow-like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as calendar or almanac use. But the evidence remains inconclusive. The most important work of the Mesolithic era were the marching Warriors, a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón in Spain dated to about 7,000–4,000 BC. The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock. The paintings are quite naturalistic, though stylized. The figures are not three-dimensional, even though they overlap.

Stone Age rituals and beliefs
Modern studies and the in-depth analysis of finds dating from the Stone Age indicate certain rituals and beliefs of the people in those prehistoric times. It is now believed that activities of the Stone Age humans went beyond the immediate requirements of procuring food, body coverings, and shelters. Specific rites relating to death and burial were practiced, though certainly differing in style and execution between cultures.

Popular culture
The image of the caveman is commonly associated with the Stone Age. For example, the 2003 documentary series showing the evolution of humans through the Stone Age was called Walking with Cavemen, although only the last programme showed humans living in caves. While the idea that human beings and dinosaurs coexisted is sometimes portrayed in popular culture in cartoons, films and computer games, such as The Flintstones, One Million Years B.C. and Chuck Rock, the notion of primates and dinosaurs co-existing is not supported by any scientific evidence.

Other depictions of the Stone Age include the best-selling Earth's Children series of books by Jean M. Auel, which are set in the Palaeolithic and are loosely based on archaeological and anthropological findings. The 1981 film Quest for Fire by Jean-Jacques Annaud tells the story of a group of humans searching for their lost fire.

The phrase "bomb them back into the Stone Age", was made by then Chief of Staff, US Air Force General Curtis E. Lemay, when in 1965, he made the statement towards the North Vietnamese, during the Vietnam War; "They've got to draw in their horns and stop their aggression, or we're going to bomb them back into the stone age." The gist of that statement implied a fierce aerial attack that would have utterly destroyed its target's infrastructure, forcing its survivors to revert to primitive technology in order to survive.

See also
Human evolution
Lithic reduction
Megalith
Prehistoric music
Prehistoric warfare
Stone age diet (also known as the Paleolithic diet, a modern diet that seeks to replicate the dietary habits of Stone Age hunter-gatherers)
Three-age system

Notes
Scarre, Christopher (ed.) (1988). Past Worlds: The Times Atlas of Archaeology. London: Times Books. ISBN 0-7230-0306-8.
Schick, Kathy D.; Nicholas Toth (1993). Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69371-9.

References
^ Worsaae, Jens Jacob Asmussen." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 Apr. 2008
^ a b c Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick (2007). Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1963. ISBN 978-3-540-32474-4 (Print) 978-3-540-33761-4 (Online). http://www.springerlink.com/content/u68378621542472j/.
^ "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
^ Grolier Incorporated (1989). The Encyclopedia Americana. University of Michigan: Grolier Incorporated. p. 542. ISBN 0717201201. http://books.google.com/books?id=eRQaAAAAMAAJ&q=the+paleolithic+began+2.6+million+years+ago.&dq=the+paleolithic+began+2.6+million+years+ago.&pgis=1.
^ "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
^ Grolier Incorporated (1989). The Encyclopedia Americana. University of Michigan: Grolier Incorporated. p. 542. ISBN 0717201201. http://books.google.com/books?id=eRQaAAAAMAAJ&q=the+paleolithic+began+2.6+million+years+ago.&dq=the+paleolithic+began+2.6+million+years+ago.&pgis=1.
^ a b McClellan (2006). Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. Baltimore, Maryland: JHU Press. ISBN 0801883601. http://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC&printsec=frontcover#PPA11. Page 6-12
^ "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D.
^ phillip lieberman (1991). Uniquely Human. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674921836. http://books.google.com/books?id=3tS2MULo5rYC&pg=PA162&dq=Uniquely+Human+cognitive-linguistic+base&ei=nNUeR9fmBo74pwKwtKnMDg&sig=3UsvgAnE5B-vzb55I6W6OqqhJy4.
^ Kusimba, Sibel (2003). African Foragers: Environment, Technology, Interactions. Rowman Altamira. pp. 285. ISBN 075910154X. http://books.google.com/books?id=xCa5zfefWVUC&printsec=frontcover&vq=Middle+Paleolithic&rview=1&source=gbs_summary_r#PPA133,M1.
^ World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago The Research Council of Norway (2006, November 30). World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 2, 2008, fromhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061130081347.htm
^ Ian Kuijt (2000) "Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and differentiation" page 317 Springer press
^ Leonard D. KatzRigby (2000). Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. United kingdom: Imprint Academic. pp. 352. http://books.google.com/books?id=inmTyPPdR5oC&pg=RA1-PA158&dq=Neolithic+egalitarianism&lr=&sig=VOAK5WWAg2del4rIQKQIaQ4EGzQ#PRA1-PA158,M1. Page 158
^ Guthrie, pg 420.
^ Efraim Lev, Mordechai E. Kislev, Ofer Bar-Yosef (March 2005). "Mousterian vegetal food in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel". Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (3): 475–484. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.006.
^ Piperno DR, Weiss E, Holst I, Nadel D. (2004 Aug 5). "Processing of wild cereal grains in the Upper Palaeolithic revealed by starch grain analysis.". Nature 430 (7000): 670–3. doi:10.1038/nature02734. PMID 15295598. http://anthropology.si.edu/archaeobio/Ohalo%20II%20Nature.pdf.

External links
The Stone Age
Stone Age Handaxes
Stone Age Habitats
v • d • eThree-age system

Stone Age · Bronze Age · Iron Age

List of archaeological periods

What is Resin Jewellery

2009-04-24T08:26:00.000+07:00

What is Resin Jewellery
There are many different ways to design jewellery from that one of the most widely used methods is the resin jewellery decoration. Is a technique by which you can decorate jewellery (eg, pieces of stones in a bezel).
By using colored resin an array of jewellery can be decorated without the use of engase stones. The following are the material used for making a resin jewellery:

- Completely transparent resin color (peroxide is used as the Cobalt is built) - Jewel to treat - Semi-precious stones (lapis lazuli, turquoise, etc) - Lijas Metal (water) 280, 400, 1000, 1500, 2500 - Polishing Paste

PROCEDURE: The first step is to have completely finished jewel, and then weld the part. Carefully select and break the stone using a hammer, making it to perfect size depending on personal taste and size of the cavity.

Quickly put the pieces of stone the way you want, and then cover all the spaces left with the remaining resin. Once the resin has dried proceed to sanding and polishing the resin along with the metal.

CONCLUSION: It is important to note that the time we have to work once the resin has been mixed with the peroxide is very little.

The drying time depends on the amount of peroxide and the climate, if heat os more than the drying time decreases. Usually when you touch you feel little sticky but actually that is dried.

The ideal sanding recommended to start is 280 until you get to 2500 and then polish the sandpaper with polishing paste.

It is recommended to use disposable utensils when preparing the resin. With the help of the resin one can make many types of jewelry as it is easy and does not take much time to dry. The time that is consumed in this process in very little and one can get this work within no time.

We are the people who can offer our customers with anything that they need. We work on any kin of materials. We offer quality service at lower price, and above all peace of mind for our customers to have the best service.

We prepare all kinds of objects, displays, trophies, corporate gifts, gifts and details of masters and bearers. There are different sections; you can see some of the items we make.

About the Author
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Why Natural Stone Flooring is the Sustainable Choice

2009-04-23T07:40:00.000+07:00

Why Natural Stone Flooring is the Sustainable Choice
Natural stone flooring is not a new idea. Buildings from pre-history can be found that have stone slabs laid carefully flat on the ground to provide a good stable floor. The principle today is little changed, though now we have a much greater choice because of commercially produced stone tiles.

Stone flooring is now available in a wide variety of textures and colours, as well as having built-in durability and suitability for different conditions. When choosing a flooring material you should consider this: natural stone flooring is the only material that actually improves over time. It will last forever. That's why the floors of pre-historic houses can still look surprisingly modern.

There are few flooring choices that have better hard-wearing qualities than stone. Over time it will acquire its own patina adding a distinct characteristic that can only be found in flooring made from natural stone. It is easy to keep clean and depending on your choice, it is stylish and as modern looking as any other type of flooring.

The rock that stone floors come from can be divided into three basic types: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. Travertine and limestone are examples of sedimentary stone, granite is an example of igneous stone, and slate and marble are examples of metamorphic stone.

Reconstituted stone or replica stone is not real stone. Tiles made like this can never compare with the natural beauty of stone that is just as nature made it. Manufacturers have tried hard over the years to reproduce the effect of natural stone, but without success. Some of their products are very good to be fair, but they are not real stone.

Man-made stone tiles are new. Real stone on the other hand has, in some cases, been 300 million years in the making. Nature takes its time, but just look at the results and you will have to agree that they are truly unbeatable. Natural stone flooring has no real competitor, and that is something unlikely to ever change.

Flooring made from real stone doesn't have to be rough. In fact, it doesn't really have to look like our idea of stone at all. It can be polished to a high shine finish, or kept matte allowing the texture to shine through. It can be dark or even black, or light coloured, or indeed anything in between.

Maintenance of a floor made from natural stone is easy and trouble-free. It needs to be sealed to maintain its integrity, but once that is done cleaning is easy. A good sealant will also help to prevent staining, it should not change the natural colour in any way, and it will help to prolong the useful life of the floor.

Natural stone flooring is the sustainable choice for everyone. It will last as many lifetimes as you wish to name. If proof is needed, then consider that the oldest stone floor in Britain, one made of limestone, is around 7,000 years old and still in remarkably good condition. That should be sustainable enough for anyone.

David A Robinson
Help and information about using natural stone for homes and businesses

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=David_A_Robinson
http://EzineArticles.com/?Why-Natural-Stone-Flooring-is-the-Sustainable-Choice&id=2088617

No Rule Set on Stone

2009-04-22T15:33:00.001+07:00

No Rule Set on Stone
The simple fact in life remains, that is, everything in life is changing and the only the thing that seems to be constant is change, well not quite, include the interpretation of laws, particularly laws on personal injuries. They say laws are appreciated in a different light and point of view dependent on the facts and circumstances in a particular case. True, laws are no good without any issue for it to be utilized. This is where law in its pure form can be made in as complex a state as it could possibly be. Although there is a system of law known as jurisprudence, which is the adoption of a court’s previous ruling if the facts concerning the previous litigation actually relates to the same factual background as what is talked about in the case at the hand, there is no hard and fast rule that the same ruling would actually be adopted.

A case in point would be in a personal injury case. One case held as a rule, that in an accident accosted in an intersection, the person who has the right of way in consonance with the signal of the traffic light at the time of the impact has the ample right which must be upheld. In another case, meanwhile, it was ruled that despite the right of way of defendant, which was determined at the time of impact on the basis of the signal of the traffic light, he was still held as guilty for contributory negligence. He was asked to pay damages because he has the last clear chance to avoid the accident, which he failed to do. In this case, it was held that although defendant has indeed the clear right of way, he saw the plaintiff way before the accident happened, and if only he exercised proper prudence under the circumstances then the accident could have been avoided.

This and an array of other similar accidents, particularly those concerning vehicular mishaps are manifestations of how the law on transportation is viewed as dynamic. Meaning that notwithstanding what your personality is in an accident, if you think you were deprived of your rights then go ahead and fight for it, who knows you could be the next to debunk another landmark jurisprudence.

Natural Stone, the Timeless Sustainable Choice of the Experts

2009-04-20T07:35:00.000+07:00

Natural Stone, the Timeless Sustainable Choice of the Experts
They used it some 4,500 years ago as the primary building material for one of the most awe-inspiring of the world's seven wonders, the Giza plateau pyramids of Egypt. And about 2,000 years earlier in Britain they used it to build one of the world's greatest enigmas, Stonehenge. Natural stone, the timeless sustainable choice of experts is not a new idea, but it is still being avidly used as a building material today.

The experts who designed and built such potent edifices in Scotland as the Scottish Parliament, the Weston link at the National Gallery of Scotland, and the Museum of Scotland all chose natural stone as a predominant building material. Its unembellished beauty always shines through and its timeless enduring quality sustains down the ages.

A stone is "a piece of rock or hard mineral substance (other than metal), of small to moderate size," according to The Oxford English Dictionary. However, that does not tell us that there are many different types of stone, born from many different kinds of lithification, or rock making, processes, such as sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic stone.

Over the centuries stone masons have discovered which type of stone is best suited for a particular task. Some stone types like granite are best suited for pure strength, while limestone and marble work well for decorative and aesthetically pleasing uses.

Stone can of course be broken down into little pieces and become gravel. A crushing process breaks the stone down until the pieces are more or less the same predetermined size. This allows for a uniform covering for driveways and paths, for example, though gravel has many more uses. It is a satisfyingly low maintenance material that is relatively inexpensive and easy to use.

Natural stone is increasingly becoming popular as a flooring material. It works well with underfloor heating, retaining the heat and thereby making it a very cost-effective choice. It is a naturally durable type of floor covering requiring little maintenance and looking extremely elegant almost forever.

It also works well as the base of a patio, especially in a damp climate where a wooden deck can warp. It doesn't need annually painting or protecting and it will fit right in with the general landscape, which of course is where it came from originally.

Natural stone is an inspired choice for a large open fireplace surround. There's nothing quite like an open fire on a cold evening to bring out the best in people. Relaxing by an open fire as the flames lick lazily up the chimney while sipping a glass of something strong is a great time to appreciate the expert workmanship of stone in such a fireplace, and it is indeed a shame if it isn't there.

This article could go on and on about the virtues of natural stone; there's hardly a situation where it cannot be used to some extent. It is completely sympathetic to the environment, it looks great, it needs little time and effort to maintain and it is relatively inexpensive. Surely that alone is enough good reasons to love it, and certainly why it is the timeless sustainable choice of experts.

David A Robinson
Help and information about using natural stone for domestic and commercial buildings.

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Doing Your Own Stone Settings

2009-04-15T09:04:00.001+07:00

Doing Your Own Stone Settings
Stone setting in general is much more difficult than many might suspect. There are short courses in various sorts of jewelry work but those provide only a basic starting place and years of experience needed to become truly proficient in many areas. Fortunately, if a person devotes time to stone setting and does enough of one style of setting to become comfortable with it, moving on to similar styles is not nearly as difficult as those "first trials".

As you likely know, stone setting is done in many different styles. Within those styles, one jeweler may use slightly different methods than would another jeweler doing the exact same job. There is room to experiment with methods but only after you have set a few stones and are pleased with the results. Once you have a feel for the metal and the gems, then you know enough not to totally mess-up by trying a slightly different method.

Stone Setting Styles. I will mention a few styles and recommend what I believe is the best place to begin.The prong settings using faceted stones. This is the best place to begin. Start with a round stone, perhaps 4mm to 7mm in diameter. Smaller stones are more difficult until you learn the "give and take" of the metal, while larger stones present other problems. Start with normal prongs, generally four or six to the setting.

There are lots of prong settings with fancy formed and decorated prongs but those are not the best with which to begin learning. I don't care if the prong settings are part of a pendant, ring or earrings. The idea is fairly plain and basic prong settings regardless of the jewelry type.

The Bezel Settings, is use a narrow area of metal around the girdle or waist of the stone to secure the stone in the setting. The most basic form is seen in typical southwestern turquoise jewelry, essentially a band of silver wrapped around the stone and pressed down toward the stone from the top.

The more dramatic and much more difficult bezel is "flush set", where a gemstone is set directly into the surface of metal such as on a ring band and the metal is burnished or hammered to the stone then finished for smoothness. This last technique is quite difficult for a beginner and is best left until you feel ready for it and have the equipment to do the job.

Channel Settings. You have seen these settings in which rows of stones are set into a "groove" or channel of metal. This is also a difficult job and should not be attempted to start. To try a channel setting without lots of previous metal and seat cutting experience will lead to frustration and disappointment. Look at channel set stones at a jewelry store.

Inexpensive jewelry is a "fake job" and the stones are in a channel but held in place with little burs of metal pushed over opposite sides of the stone. Stones fall out of these settings! A real channel set has the metal along the channel pushed down onto the stones, all along the channel. You need to learn to bezel set before doing channel settings since some similar techniques are used.

Bead Set or Pave Setting. This setting is done with hand tools in the final stages, forming metal over one stone at a time and sometimes two at a time using "graver" tools. This is advanced technique. A setting style with a similar look uses "needle point" prongs formed to start with in the metal. We can talk about that sometime down the road.

Fancy Shaped Stones. Even when using prong settings, fancy shaped stones need added techniques. Essentially the same methodoval stones are used to cut seats and tighten prongs for emerald cuts as for round and oval stones . Marquise and pear shapes have a pointed end requiring a different seat cutting method to hold the pointed end securely without breaking the stone! The problem with emerald cuts is getting the stone level and straight and secure enough that the stone will not "turn" in the prongs.

The problem with stones with pointed ends or corners is cutting the seat and tightening without damage to the stone. Such fancy shape are not to be feared but understood to be more difficult, requiring practiced hand control before attempting.

Settings. I recommend starting with simple prong settings, generally found in four and six prong versions. Note, jewelers often use the words settings, heads, crowns and mountings to mean the same thing.

Stone Shapes. I recommend round faceted stones in sizes from perhaps 4mm to 7mm. You may try ovals stone, too, but do a few rounds first. With ovals, over tightening any prong can make the stone go sideways a bit in the prongs.

Stone Kinds. CZ's are good to start as are man-made birthstones. Most of the birthstones are synthetic sapphire (corundum) and are quite hard. The value of these stones is, they are pretty when set and are not expensive. The cuts are fairly uniform, too, compared to less expensive natural stones. Still, you need to practice on some stones which are not tough as the birthstones. For this, choose perhaps some inexpensive, meaning almost colorless, amethysts and inexpensive garnets.

These will not be the most beautiful gems but are wonderful for practice and can look pretty in earrings and pendants. You will likely discover the girdle or waist of inexpensive natural gems may be varied in thickness and the angles of the facets on the pavilion or bottom of the stone may vary. The idea is to get the stone level in the mounting so it looks level to the eye.

For the work to be done just like it should, stone seats need to be cut into the prongs to match the gemstone on hand. I suggest trying something in sterling silver. The metal is easy to bend and work. In fact, sterling is soft enough to "over bend" without due care. Gold is somewhat more springy and takes more effort to properly set than silver. However, gold is more forgiving than silver and certainly takes a better finish in the final steps. I suggest a sterling pendant, facet set stone in prongs. That is a good starting place.

Please, keep in mind the main idea is to have a finished piece that does look good to the eye! The stone should be safe and secure in the setting but that is not "seen". What is seen is the finished jewelry. That is the impression both to you and to anyone who happens to see it. Set the stone at a pleasing depth in the prongs, stone set level, finish off the prongs so all is uniform and neatly done. It will take some time to get use to this kind of think, but when you do get use to this kind of thing you will have no problem fixing your jewelery, your families, maybe even some of your friends jewelery.

DO you Need to Seal your Marble, Granite or other Porous Stones?

2009-04-14T08:59:00.001+07:00

DO you Need to Seal your Marble, Granite or other Porous Stones?
The answer is YES. All Stone surfaces need to be sealed. However many factors need to be considered when choosing the correct sealer. First, the type of stone. All stone is not created equal. How porous a stone is and how fast it absorbs liquids is called the absorption coefficient. This coefficient is extremely important when choosing a sealer. Granite generally will have a higher absorption coefficient than a polished marble . Limestone can be extremely absorbent. The higher the absorption coefficient, the more difficult it will be to seal the stone.
To get a general idea of how absorbent the stone is, place several drops of water on the surface of the stone and time how long it takes for the water to completely disappear. If the water disappears in under one minute, consider the stone very porous. If it take up to 3-4 minutes, consider it porous. If it takes more than 5 minutes, consider it slightly porous. This simple test will also give a good indication of the quantity of sealer needed to protect the entire area.

How do we protect stone and other porous materials from staining. There are so many sealers on the market today. Which ones are best? Which ones really work?

It can be very confusing trying to choose a sealer to protect stone. In the past several years, the stone restoration and janitorial industries have bombarded the market with hundreds of products to seal, protect and polish stone.

Fortunately, all of these products fall into only two major categories: 1. Coatings 2. Impregnators or penetrating sealers.

Coatings: Coatings are sealers that place a sacrificial coating on the surface of the stone. This is a film that lays on top of the stone acting as a barrier to prevent water, oil and dirt from entering the pores of the stone. Coatings can be classified into two general types: 1. Strippable, 2. Permanent.

COATING OR IMPREGNATOR? How do you make the determination between a coating or an impregnator? They both have their advantages and their disadvantages. The following summary should be studied carefully when choosing the proper product:

Coating-Advantages: Coatings are sealers that place a layer on the surface of the stone. 1. Coatings are generally economical. The initial application is relatively low cost. 2. Coatings are generally easy to apply. Unskilled labor can learn to apply them in a short time.

Coatings-Disadvantages: 1. Since most coatings are typically softer than the stone itself, they will usually scratch, mar and scuff very easily, showing traffic patterns soon after application. This will require frequent buffing, burnishing or re-application. 2. Coatings can build up and can cause an unsightly appearance, producing an unnatural, wavy, plastic look to the stone. 3. Poor quality coatings can turn yellow. This is especially true if the stone is exposed to UV light. 4. Coatings require frequent stripping and reapplication. The chemicals and abrasives used in the stripping process may cause damage to the stone. Typically, certain stripping pads and stripping brushes can scratch some softer stones. Some wax strippers can harm certain stones such as agglomerates, eating away at the polyester binders. 5. Certain coatings may block the breathing capability of the stone. Moisture can become trapped below the surface and may lead to spalling.

Impregnators-Advantages: 1. Most impregnators will not change the appearance of the stone. 2. Most impregnators do not require frequent applications. Since the impregnator is below the surface, it will generally last several years before reapplication is necessary. 3. Most impregnators are not affected by UV light since they are below the surface where UV light cannot penetrate. For this reason they can be used outdoors. 4. Impregnators are typically hydrophobic, while some are oiliophobic. 5. Floors that have been impregnated are easier and less expensive to maintain than non-impregnated or coated floors because the stone is harder than the coatings.

Impregnators-Disadvantages: 1. Impregnators that are solvent-based smell bad and are flammable during application. 2. Solvent-based impregnators are harmful to the environment producing high VOC (volatile organic compounds). 3. The initial cost of most impregnators is relatively high.

When choosing the proper product for protection, the above guidelines should help. Always talk with the manufacture or distributor, and let them know where you plan to use their product. They can be very helpful if you tell them all the conditions that apply.

About the Author
yuxiang granite tile , quartz stone and marble tile

Choose Underfloor Heating With Natural Stone For Complete Luxury

2009-04-13T09:25:00.002+07:00

Choose Underfloor Heating With Natural Stone For Complete Luxury
Underfloor heating with natural stone is not a particularly new idea, though some salesmen may want you to think so. The enterprising Romans are known to have devised a form of early underfloor heating for the natural stone and tiled flooring of their houses.

That was some 2,000 years ago. They built their homes with specially designed channels running under the floors. Heated air from wood burning furnaces was made to flow through the channels, thereby heating the rooms above.

Today's underfloor heating methods are broadly similar in purpose, though technology has of course moved on. The efficiency of modern underfloor heating systems is naturally far ahead of the relatively crude Roman invention.

Natural stone is a natural choice for underfloor heating. It does of course take a while for the heat to seep through after the system is initiated as stone is slow to warm up. But once it gets going it stays as hot as you need it to be for as long as you need it. No more agonising tiptoeing over cold floors on cold winter mornings; underfloor heating with natural stone is a luxury to be savoured and appreciated.

Underfloor heating has many advantages over the more traditional radiant heating or convection heating, or even forced air heating. Radiant heating from a relatively small unit tends to be directional and takes time to warm a room thoroughly, while convection heating is great for producing a hot ceiling, but usually there's no one is up there to appreciate it.

Underfloor heating on the other hand, especially when natural stone is the floor covering chosen, heats a room more evenly and more thoroughly. It's a natural choice for anyone who detests cold winters and cold feet.

Heating a room or a whole house from under the floor has distinct advantages from the point of view of distribution, noise and cost. When properly designed the heat is distributed evenly from every part of the floor, thereby producing an evenly heated room. There is no annoying fan noises switching on and off at regular intervals, and the cost of operating an underfloor heating system can be surprisingly low.

There are basically two different types of heating systems positioned underfloor: a dry system and a wet system. The dry system uses electricity as the power source. This is a radiant system, but as the entire floor is the radiant source, the heat is evenly distributed.

The wet system utilises a radiant heated water system, a bit like a huge underfloor radiator if you like. There are pros and cons of both systems and it's really a matter of weighing them up and deciding which one works best for you.

Another consideration for underfloor heating with natural stone is to allow for the expansion and contraction of the stone due to heating and cooling. It is always best to install the natural stone and the heating system together as an integrated unit, rather than adding the heating system later. Improperly installed systems can crack stone tiles, or cause other damage. Always consider the overall effects to save yourself time and money.

David A Robinson
Help and information about using natural stone in your home or business.

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Beaded Gem Stone Jewelry - Dare To Be Distinctive

2009-04-08T13:36:00.001+07:00

Beaded Gem Stone Jewelry - Dare To Be Distinc The earliest known examples of jewelry are thought to be a pair of beads made from Nassarius shells, and is estimated to be around 100,000 years old. Using beads as jewelry to adorn the human form clearly has a long and illustrious history.

One of the benefits of gem stones is that each gem stone is unique, with distinctive visual features captured inside each stone. Combine numerous gem stones into a piece of beaded jewelry and you have a spectacular item that is truly unique.

The most popular form of gem stone beaded jewelry is probably the necklace. With all the different gem stone colors that one gets, it is very easy to find a beaded necklace that perfectly matches every single outfit that you have.

It is almost a favorite pastime of mine, to watch for and admire tasteful selections of gem stone jewelry at social events. A carefully selected item says a lot about the woman who wears it. Not only does it demonstrate her sense of style, selection, and taste, it also accentuates her natural beauty and pride of being a gorgeous woman.

The beaded gem stone necklace that I love most is the one with smaller and larger gem stones carefully arranged, with a few silver beads strung in amongst the gem stones.

Be careful with colors when you select such a necklace. More than two colors could make your expensive gem stone piece of jewelry look like a cheap necklace. One color is preferable, mixed in with a natural color such as silver or gold.

Another lovely item is a set of beaded gem stone earrings. They can both shorten a longer facial structure and lengthen the shorter facial structure.

Just one request, girls, when you wear an expensive set of beaded gem stone jewelry earrings, please do not hide them underneath loose hanging hair. That set of earrings begs to be out in the open, it pleads to be seen and admired, and it yearns to complement your good looks.

If you dare to be distinctive and wear something eye-catching and stunning, then you definitely need to acquire for yourself a few select beaded gem stone jewelry items.